Seeds, the foundation of plant reproduction, are nature’s ingenious solution for preserving and spreading life. These tiny packages contain a plant embryo and nutrient reserve, shielded by a protective testa. The seed’s journey begins when pollen fertilizes an ovule, creating a zygote that grows into an embryo. This process defines spermatophytes, setting them apart from water-dependent ferns, mosses, and liverworts. As the dominant force in terrestrial ecosystems, seed plants have conquered diverse habitats, from lush forests to arid grasslands, thriving in both scorching heat and frigid cold. Their remarkable adaptability has allowed them to shape the very fabric of life on land.
From ovary to fruit, flowering plants protect and spread their seeds. Some “seeds” are dry fruits in disguise. Sunflower kernels hide behind tough walls, awaiting release. Stone fruits, like peaches, encase seeds in hardened layers. Nuts—acorns and hazelnuts among them—are nature’s armor, shielding single seeds within unyielding shells. Each plant group employs unique strategies, transforming ovaries into diverse fruit forms to safeguard and disperse their genetic legacy.